African Modernism in America, 1947–1967

In 1961, the Harmon Foundation, a leading American organization devoted to support and promotion of African artists, opened its landmark exhibition contemporary art entitled Art from Africa Our Time. The Museum Modern in New York also exhibited first acquisition art, Men Taking Banana Beer Bride by Night (1956) Tanzanian Makerere-trained artist Sam Ntiro (Fig. 1) that year. simultaneity Foundation show MoMA purchase was crucially important, drawing attention artists' modernity moment shifting relationships between United States Africa. By many nations had gained independence colonial rule. During same year, Freedom Riders protested segregation South; Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba killed CIA-supported assassination plot; eminent Pan-Africanist W.E.B. Du Bois emigrated Ghana. Within changing social political contexts colonialism, decolonization, Africa, artists developed new visual languages, exhibitions such as Time enabled audiences recognize their shared aesthetic concernsThis transformative is backbone upcoming Modernism America, 1947–1967, which will tour late 2022 through 2024. Organized Fisk University Galleries Nashville, Tennessee, Federation Arts, it be major traveling examine complex connections modern patrons, cultural organizations amid interlocking histories civil rights, Cold War. these years, institutions Foundation; Art, York; historically Black colleges universities (HBCUs) across collected works most important mid-twentieth century, including Ben Enwonwu (Nigeria), Gerard Sekoto (South Africa), Ibrahim El-Salahi (Sudan), Skunder Boghossian (Ethiopia). inventive irrefutably nature paintings, sculptures, on paper defied typical Western narratives about being isolated “primitive” past, presentation rooted vital work firmly present for audiences.The drawn primarily University's remarkable collection gifts donated 1967 under Howard University-trained artist, curator, historian David C. Driskell's tenure at university.1 It features more than seventy artworks fifty exemplify emerged during 1950s 1960s politics. research undertaken co-curators Perrin M. Lathrop (independent), Nikoo Paydar Jamaal B. Sheats (director Galleries) over past five years include archival documents, films, music, photographs they encountered Special Collections Papers Photographic Archives Library Congress, Driskell Center Maryland, National States, among other sites.2 addition co-curators, breadth arguments offered America relies upon catalogue contributors, scholars Chika Okeke-Agulu, Kate Cowcher, Ozioma Onuzulike, Paul Taylor. catalogue, edited Lathrop, feature newly commissioned essays scholars, an interview with Sheats, collage sculptor Ndidi Dike based her commission exhibition, introduction fellow María Magdalena Campos-Pons. book critical biographies all written wide-ranging group experts Europe ensure book's status reference modernism. reveals similarly transcontinental network curators, challenged assumptions thereby encouraged engagement contemporaries.African 1947–1967 situate display within international power dynamics characterized decades following end World War II. All used respond time were living, period marked promise liberation movements shadow War-era radical insistence contemporaneity literature, exhibitions, discourse guide visitors towards understanding motivating forces behind formal conceptual innovations view galleries. unfold four sections. provide overview different venues supported modernists 1960s; second review spaces founded continent surrounding independence; third focus effects transatlantic exchange both artists; while fourth, Dike, investigate role women developing Each section layer historical context focused examination individual artworks, pairing objects enable themselves narrate ambitions processes. An illustrated timeline identifying historical, political, artistic, events impacting working geographies covered employed throughout show's sections counter, Johannes Fabian's words, persistent “denial coevalness” arts, histories, people Eurocentric conceptions (see Fabian 2002).African open “Art Time: Artist” introduce places who era. These sites like HBCUs, Merton Simpson's gallery, then-contemporary States. influence wide-reaching, impacted collecting America. begins selected restaging 1961 Time, Foundation's survey era served blueprint later continent-wide toured support. Featuring range styles subjects, this opening key Enwonwu's indigenous artmaking practices his c. 1949 ebony portrait Samson Imade, Benin carver 2), early example Sekoto's Blue Head series 3), Ethiopian Mamo Tessema's Warrior 1960 4), compelling artist's abstracted figural sculptures. Though included still-life painting magnolia bloom, instead Jamaican-born Suzanna Ogunjami's 1934 A Nupe Princess 5), Fisk's collection. imagined royal, lays claim heritage culture, challenges our identity lens diaspora.In featuring selections artwork use film footage documentary visualize audience would have come together openings elsewhere. documented involvement world City Negro (1933), featured prominent figures attendance fifth sculpture, photography patronage involved Harlem Renaissance.3 shots touring writer scholar Alain Locke, presidents HBCUs Hampton, Fisk, Tuskegee, philanthropic leaders day Phelps-Stokes Fund, hosted headquarters. preceding scope we plan 1933 supplementary material demonstrate established White built when promoting racial politics governed physical navigation segregated world.Known Americans, became gatekeeper seeking entry scene mid-century. highlight postwar culminated publications Contemporary Artists (Washington 1960) Africa's (Brown 1966). From 1947, Akinọla Laṣekan (Nigeria) contact closure 1967, director Mary Beattie Brady assistant Evelyn S. Brown corresponded administrators, gather information archives Congress help reconstruct transnational networks enabled. II global cultural, reckoning coincide widespread investment fighting War.Though not funded government, kept good State Department America's liberal foundations, well longstanding ties community, called facilitate visits organize (Walter 2003). Throughout 1960s, maintained intellectual placed Washington DC, Hampton Virginia, others. those Nigerian Laṣekan, aimed foster, according Brady, “the growing feeling value native cultures Africa” Americans.4The reputation supporting widely known. influential 1943 volume historian, professor James A. Porter credited annual “among greatest stimuli Movement” (1992: 97). viewed paternalistic Norman Lewis Romare Bearden, privileging sociological merit, continued utilized resource because expansive unavoidable. Therefore, along artistic career Lagos, Nigeria, sent selection began exhibit 1948, Countee Cullen Branch Public 6). Selections body paintings Ogedengbe Ilesha Kiriji (c. 1958–59) 7), Brown's request preparations Time.A few months after Laṣekan's initial June wrote Charles Johnson, renowned sociologist president University. friend West Students Union London, George Padmore, journalist previously studied medicine University, reach out Johnson planning trip aim interest “Negro African” study department.5 responded enthusiastically, putting touch Aaron Douglas, Richmond Barthé, mainspring arrangements Art.“6 US British Information Service eventually cosponsored October November 1950, responsible arranging scheduling lectures, demonstrations, York, Washington, Boston, Vermont.7HBCUs Howard, collaborations highlighted Founded South wake 1863 Emancipation Proclamation higher education freed formerly enslaved peoples descent, some only schools students far into twentieth earliest adopt culture departments.8 Although initially vocational training, direction V. Herring, departments shifted century theoretical socially conscious curricula (Powell Reynolds 1999: 113–14).Influenced philosopher Locke's writings, famous “Legacy Ancestral Arts,” especially, approach teaching where he chairman 1939, completing mural cycle invitation earlier decade (Locke 1997: 254–68). Following Bois's conception Pan-Africanism, Enwonwu, Douglas's murals emphasize celebrate rich (Kirschke 1995: 110–14). Bringing awareness teaching, Douglas presented examples Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, sub-Saharan European history. classes, emphasized importance ancient Egyptian civilizations become ambassadors (Earle 2007: 43–45). This kind ownership promoted mission Carl Van Vechten Gallery, organizing venue America.9Reflecting plans 1950 travels she hoped encourage student connect achievement bridge living today glass showcase field primitive.”10 Countering expectations limited or “traditional” wood showcased contemporaneity. Paintings now collection, Oba Akenzua (1949) 8) Ghosts Tradition 9) collaboration curator Herring DC. wide elites attended opening, Alonzo J. Aden, Barnett Aden Emmanuel Ledan, Haitian representative Pan-American 10).11 slow develop world, receptive Americans (Ogbechie 2008: 105). Where possible, reproduce images individuals time.12 As Claude Barnett, founder Associated Press, year visit, “Negroes are just awakening appreciation Africa.”13 visit thus generated opportunities Africans share creative struggles. recognizes centers awakening.Brady's attempts generate powerful elites, René d'Harnoncourt less successful days art. D'Harnoncourt dismissed hand, insisting thatWhile colleagues expansion beyond primitivizing stereotypes, maintaining control boundaries. Sylvester Ogbechie has noted monographic certain Euro-American prepared allow own terms.15Though partnered various organizations, stage modernism expanded wider around 1960, independence. At time, increased sponsorship Forrester pioneer published Division Social Research Experimentation 1960. updated Washington's fundamental preliminary publication (1966). Both books compile work, contributions, found scattered, uneven, lacking process. Commenting dismissal forefront arts mid-century, d'Harnoncourt, aptly wrote, “It almost seem today's been snowed rush illustrious ancestors” (1960: iii).The shift enthusiasm efforts met establishment, Art. Trailblazing dealer abstract expressionist D. Simpson, member Spiral group, gallery impact commercial space visibility Simpson organized 11) which, mentioned, acquired 1). purchased Boghossian, held two El-Salahi. After Alfred H. Barr, Jr. First International Culture Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe) 1962, accepted permanent Zimbabwean Joseph Ndandarika Thomas Mukarobgwa, whose View You See Middle Tree (1962) 12) planned loan influenced private collecting. example, Dorothy Miller advised Rockefeller Vision Tomb (1965) 13) Chase Manhattan Bank's exemplary collection.16 expected introductory galleries speaks wide-reaching patrons.African shifts took place spotlighting numerous galleries, literary journals, programs time. “Mapping Modernist Networks Africa,” instrumental development new, forward-thinking discussion postcolonial Paa ya Gallery Kenya, Kibo Tanzania, Nommo Uganda, Mbari Writers Club Afi Ekong's Labac generation didactics diverse ephemera varied form announcements pamphlets, publications, posters, newspaper coverage, archived 1960s. They stress workshops fostered organizations.The instance, modernists, Demas Nwoko, Uche Okeke, Jimo Akolo, El-Salahi, Malangatana Ngwenya, hopes Nwoko's Children Cycles (1961) 14) Okeke's Ana Mmuo (Land Dead) 15) Ibadan type languages motivated diaspora energy community Jacob Lawrence, visited Nigeria 1962 Society Culture.During Lawrence Series (1946–1947) (on Whitney Art) Migration (1940–1941) Lagos Ibadan. Series, described experience serving Coast Guard II, familiar who, asked give lives war own. Victory (1947) 16), vknown traveled hope isolates single recruit's negotiation emotional tolls war. press Lawrence's reproducing alongside text Pan-African emancipation 1964, returned spent eight producing inspired country.17This consider Anglophone Pan-Africanism festivals continent, Festival Arts Dakar 1966, convened diplomatic literary, performing, arts. Senegalese Papa Ibra Tall 17) Iba N'Diaye tested boundaries Négritude ideals articulated patron Léopold Sédar Senghor, convener 1966 festival Dakar. government sponsored festival. supplement filmmaker William Greave's Agency-funded event explicitly refer intersection national underwrote motivations celebrations continent.The “African Modernists America,” establishment meaningful diplomacy. mediate agitation connecting academic endeavor pursued alone. head deeply invested summer 1956. correspondence Prince Eket Inyang-Udoh III, Obon Okon Eastern Independence Delegation, expressed sympathies pride Nigeria's impending independence, stating “Let me say how pleased I am you should call brother. humble grateful honour. sure know sincere regard hold personally peace, welfare, progress your nation.”18 further commitment joining Afro-American Committee Gifts Literature Ghana, promote donation literature Ghana writers celebration nation's Day (Knappe 222).In 1956, wife, Alta Sawyer Nigeria; Accra, Ghana; Dakar, Senegal, Europe. sketched scenes experienced coastal capitals watercolors 1956.19 Coverage Douglas' reported “impressed urban areas displayed eagerness independence.”20 One watercolor series, street 18). painting, city appears picture life. Sketched morning neighborhood Marina Island, center sprawling city, composition arrested states rest conventions photographic snapshot.21 sketche